A higher degree of Inca style is present in the second of the two streams in
which the forms and motifs are typically Inca and the style quite distinct from any
other. Traces of "Nazca" origins can be detected in the palette used by the potters in
the development of a new form: the "aryballos". Used for transporting water, this large
globular jar with a conical base which could be implanted in the ground, was carried
on the back."

    Pottery was largely a product of Inca conquests. In Cuzco the Incas brought
together the cream pottery was largely a product of Inca conquests. In Cuzco the
Incas brought together the cream of the empire's potters with a view of discovering
their trade secrets and expanding production. The presence of two main streams can
be detected in Inca pottery: the "Chimu" techniques with "Mochica" reminiscences as
in the black ware made by the north-coast potters of Chanchan and Lambayeque.
 Reams can be detected in Inca pottery: the "Chimu" techniques with "Mochica"
reminiscences as in the black ware made by the north-coast potters of Chanchan and
Lambayeque.

    Gold was used only by the Inca rulers and the nobles. It was often pounded
into thin sheets and used for plating the walls of palaces or temples. Masks, earplugs,
goblets, plates, statues, and ceremonial knives were also made from both gold and
silver. Some weapons were made from copper and bronze.

    Moreover, many of these stories are ultimately derived from the Incas' own
"official" version of history, which was probably to a great extent fabricated to glorify
the emperors and their heritage. So in the end, by reconstructing Inca history from
these written sources, we are not coming up with a representation of events as they
actually occurred, but instead we arrive at what is hopefully a reasonable
approximation of Inca history as sanctioned by the Inca state.

    Many different scholars have made the effort to reconstruct official Inca history
from chronicles and other documents (a field known as ethnohistory), and their results
differ depending on which sources they chose to rely upon. Actual dates for events in
Inca history are also rather imprecise, but here I will follow the chronology as worked
out by John H. Rowe (1946), with the understanding that the earlier dates are
undoubtedly less precise than the more recent ones. There are numerous stories
about the origins of the Incas and the founding of their capital, Cuzco. Many of them
share some basic elements, but vary greatly in detail. However, they all agree in
naming Manco Capac as the first Inca ruler. Inca origin stories can be divided into two
groups: those that hold that Manco Capac came from the cave of Pacariqtambo
("pacariq" meaning "dawn" or "origin," "tambo" meaning "place of lodging"), and
those that say he came from Lake Titicaca. But even in those stories where Lake
Titicaca is the place of origin, Pacariqtambo usually plays a role of some importance.

    The main Pacariqtambo origin story is as follows: Four brothers, Ayar Manco,
Ayar Auca, Ayar Cachi, and Ayar Uchu, and their four sisters, Mama Ocllo, Mama
Huaco, Mama Cura, and Mama Rawa, emerged from a cave in the mountain of
Tambo Toco. The sisters were also the wives of the brothers, respectively.
 This cave, located south of Cuzco at Pacariqtambo, had three windows. From
the middle window emerged Ayar Manco and his siblings, and from the two side
windows emerged the people who would later found the 10 ayllus of Cuzco. Ayar
Manco and his followers traveled for days, and many different things are said to have
happened to the group. One of the brothers was sealed up in the cave at
Pacariqtambo, and two of them turned into stone. During the trip, Ayar Manco and his
wife, Mama Ocllo had a son named Sinchi Roca.

    At last they arrived in the Valley of Cuzco, and having been given a sign from
the Sun, they knew this was the place they were to settle. The land was already
inhabited, but because the Incas were deemed to be superior in culture and
intelligence, they were allowed to live there and come to govern the natives. Ayar
Manco became Manco Capac, the ruler of Cuzco and its people. Upon his death, he
turned to stone in the place where the Incas later built their temple of the sun.

    In other versions of the origin story, Manco Capac and his brothers and sisters
arose from Lake Titicaca, and were sent out from there by their father, the Sun, to
found the city of Cuzco. Manco Capac was given a golden staff, which he was to
plunge into the ground at each place the group rested; when the staff sank all the way
into the ground, they would know they had arrived at the proper place. They wandered
for years going to many places, and at one point stopped at Pacariqtambo. Finally,
when they arrived in the fertile valley of Cuzco, the staff sank all the way into the
ground, and there they founded their kingdom.

    Other versions link Lake Titicaca and Pacariqtambo by stating that Manco and
his siblings originated in Lake Titicaca, and traveled underground to arise from the
cave at Pacariqtambo. While the proliferation of Inca origin stories may seem
confusing, it is likely that different versions were meant for different audiences,
created to serve the ends of the Inca elite in different ways.

    Those who headed the Inca State were known by various titles, including
"Sapa Inca," "Capac Apu," and "Intip Cori." Often, an emperor was simply referred to
as "the Inca." Rather than having a crown, the Inca emperors wore a fringe on the
center of their headdress as a symbol of their status.
 It is important to note that the term "Inca" can refer not only to the ruler, but
also to people belonging to the ethnic group that settled in the Cuzco region at the
time of Manco Capac; these people were all Incas by birth. Other people, mainly
groups in the regions surrounding Cuzco, were given the honorary status of "Incas
by privilege." In contrast, people native to the other regions conquered and
controlled by the Incas belonged to many other ethnic groups, such as the
Chachapoyas, Cañaris, and Wankas. These people were not considered Incas.
 For about two centuries after its founding by Manco Capac, circa 1200
AD., the Inca domain remained small, and was no more significant in size or power
than other societies in the Peruvian highlands. At this time in the central Andes,
there was something of a power vacuum. The powerful Wari Empire, which had
previously dominated much of Peru, had collapsed perhaps one or two centuries
earlier.

    Small regional polities (i.e., large chiefdoms and small states) were
developing throughout the Andes, often coming into conflict with each other.
Warfare between neighboring groups was common, and many people lived in
defensible hilltop villages and towns. Several different groups, such as the
Quechuas, Lupacas, and Collas, were starting to create strong states, but no one
group was clearly dominant. Alliances between groups were constantly being
forged and broken to deal with threats from strong enemies or gain advantages
over weak neighbors.

    The Incas were no exception; they were not particularly strong, and had to
form alliances to protect themselves. This was the state of things until late in the
reign of the eighth Inca, Viracocha. The Chancas, a powerful group who lived to
the north, invaded the Cuzco realm. Viracocha feared that the Incas had no
chance against the aggressors, and fled with his son and designated heir, Inca
Urcon, to a fort named Caquia Xaquixahuana.

    One of Viracocha's other sons, Inca Yupanqui, refused to give in and remained
behind to defend Cuzco. He quickly made alliances with other groups, including
the Canas and Canchis, who sent soldiers to his aid. The Chancas attacked, and
when all seemed lost, Inca Yupanqui called out that the stones in the fields were
rising up and turning to men to help fight for the Incas. With this supernatural
intercvention, the Chancas were repelled, with Inca Yupanqui and his forces
winning a significant victory.

    After his victory over the Chancas, which occurred circa 1438 AD, Inca
Yupanqui assumed control over the realm of Cuzco, and began to expand his
kingdom by conquering more territory. He assumed the name "Pachacuti," which
means "cataclysm" or "destroyer." This name was fitting, as he brought great
changes to the Central and Southern Highlands of Peru by incorporating the
people of those regions into the Inca state, and strengthening the Inca army with
soldiers from those lands.

    After his conquests, Pachacuti returned to Cuzco to rebuild the capital city in
grand style, having many buildings constructed using the fancy stone architecture the
Incas are known for. Around 1463 AD, while Pachacuti was busy organizing his
conquests and remaking Cuzco, his son, Topa Inca, was allowed to take control of the
Inca army and continue the task of conquest. During that time, Topa Inca conquered
the Northern Highlands of Peru, the Southern and Central Highlands of Ecuador, and
then the Northern and Central Coastal areas of Peru.

    Around 1471 AD, Pachacuti died, and Topa Inca became Sapa Inca. During
his rule, the empire virtually doubled in size, with the conquest of the lands of the
Southern Coast of Peru, the northern half of Chile, Northwest Argentina, and Eastern
Bolivia. In fact, the vast majority of land that came under Inca control was conquered
by armies under the command of Topa Inca either during his reign or during that of his
father.

    Thus, two men were responsible for conquering most of the territory of
Tawantinsuyu and creating the institutions that enabled the Incas to govern that vast
land. In a span of approximately 55 years, the small realm of Cuzco had turned into
the most powerful state in the New World.

     When Topa Inca died circa 1493 AD, he was succeeded by his son Huayna
Capac. By that time, the task of conquering more territory was becoming increasingly
difficult. The empire had expanded rapidly to absorb millions of people spread over
thousands of kilometers of land, and the Incas had to concentrate much of their effort
on consolidating their control over those regions, extracting goods and labor from
them, quelling various rebellions, and defending a vast border. Thus the amount of
land added to the empire under Huayna Capac (circa 1493 AD - ca. 1527 AD) was
minor compared to that of Pachacuti and Topa Inca.

    Because he lived closer to the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, more is
known about the life and achievements of Huayna Capac. It is said that he spent
much of his reign in the highlands of what is now Ecuador (and referred to then as
Quito). He showed great favor toward the settlement of Tomebamba (now the city of
Cuenca) in the land of the Cañaris, and had many fine buildings constructed there.
Tomebamba was a major regional center of Inca control, and it is said that it was
second only to Cuzco in splendor and importance, and that it may have been
considered the second Inca capital.

    Huayna Capac spent much effort conquering the northern highlands of
Ecuador, and also gained control over some lands in the northeast of Peru. It is
possible that he also campaigned and conquered some territory on the southern coast
of Ecuador, but supporting evidence for Inca control in the area is lacking.
 Nonetheless, Huayna Capac seemed to be very popular with his subjects, and
probably would have extended Inca control still further if he had not died suddenly in
1527 AD. It is likely that he died of small pox or another such disease brought to the
New World by the Spaniards. Unfortunately, his sudden death left the question of
succession unsettled, leading to a struggle between two of his sons.

    When the Inca Huayna Capac died suddenly in 1527, it was unclear who had
been named as his successor. The accounts are contradictory as to which Huayna
Capac had designated to rule the empire, but in the end, it became a struggle between
two of his sons, Atahuallpa and Huascar. Some say that Huascar was the legitimate
heir and was so decreed by Huayna Capac. By tradition, the next Inca should be the
son of the Inca and his principal wife, who should be his full-blooded sister. Huascar
met this criterion, while his half-brother Atahuallpa was the son of Huayna Capac by a
secondary wife.

    Nonetheless, others claimed that Huayna Capac told Atahuallpa that he was
splitting the empire into two, with Atahuallpa to rule the northern half, and Huascar the
southern half. Still another account says that Huayna Capac designated as successor
a son who was incapable of filling the post, leaving the question totally up in the air.
 No matter who was supposed to be the designated heir, Huascar had the
support of the Inca nobility in Cuzco, and actually took command for a few years.
Meanwhile, Atahuallpa had the support of those in Quito and, furthermore, had
command of the Huayna Capac's powerful army, which had been well seasoned from
the efforts to conquer people at the northern edge of Tawantinsuyu.

    It is almost certain that similar struggles over succession occurred at other
times in Inca history, although surely not in the case of the transition between
Pachacuti and Topa Inca. Whenever there was a conflict, the winners would
undoubtedly change the official history to legitimize their claim to leadership and
excise mention of other pretenders. If not for Francisco Pizarro, there is little doubt
that Atahuallpa would have gained and solidified his control, and then amended Inca
history so that we never would have heard of Huascar.
The Spanish Conquest of the Inca Empire

    Unfortunately for Atahuallpa Inca, who seemed to have gained the advantage
over his brother Huascar in the struggle to become emperor, the Spaniards arrived at
exactly the wrong time. Francisco Pizarro, fueled by Cortez's success in conquering
the Aztecs and acquiring riches in Mexico, determined to go south to a land where
stories told of a great kingdom of fabulous wealth. After two preliminary excursions,
Francisco Pizarro, with 168 Spaniards and a number of horses, arrived in Inca
territory in May, 1532.

    He landed at Tumbez, located in what is now the northern coast of Peru. From
there, he marched into the Andean highlands to the town of Cajamarca. At that point,
Atahuallpa's generals had captured Huascar near Cuzco, and Atahuallpa was heading
south from the northern reaches of the empire toward the capital.
 Atahuallpa was informed that some strangers were waiting to meet him in
Cajamarca. But he was not concerned about any foreign threat, and instead was pre-
occupied with the issue of Huascar and consolidating his power. So he went into
Cajamarca with his guard down.

    Pizarro had other ideas. On November 16, 1532, he and his men ambushed
Atahuallpa, using the advantages provided by their horses and a surprise attack to
overcome the Inca and his retinue. Atahuallpa was perplexed at his capture, but still
considered Huascar to be a greater threat. In return for his life, Atahuallpa offered
Pizarro a fabulous ransom: he would have a room, measuring about 22 by 17 feet,
filled with objects of gold to a height of about 8 feet. Then he would fill the room twice
more with objects of silver.

    While waiting for the ransom to arrive, Atahuallpa ordered his generals to kill
Huascar before he could be brought to Cajamarca. Eventually, the gold and silver
arrived, and Atahuallpa fulfilled his promise. In return, Pizarro had Atahuallpa
executed on July 26, 1533.

    By being in the right place at exactly the right time (or wrong place at the wrong
time, if you will), and by being ruthless and deceitful, Franciso Pizarro was able to
quickly capture the ruler of the Incas, throw the empire into disarray, and rapidly gain
wealth through Atahuallpa's ransom. But Atahuallpa's generals and other Incas
continued to resist for many years before the Spaniards had full control of all the lands
and people of Tawantinsuyu.

    With the fall of Atahuallpa and the Inca Empire, Pizarro and his associates
brought to end the most powerful native state in the New World, whose institutions
represented thousands of years of indigenous cultural developments. The Incas
cannot be considered to have been benevolent masters by any means, but the abuses
and exploitation suffered by the native peoples under Spanish rule were far worse.

    The Incas were marvelous farmers. They used and improved on farming skills
developed by earlier people of the Andes. They were able to produce more food then
needed, and harvested the largest variety of crops in ancient America.

    The Inca farmers built steplike terraces up the sides of mountains to increase
their farmland. They created impressive irrigation systems, with canals, tunnels, and
aqueducts, to provide water for their crops. They made their land more fertile by the
use of fertilizer, especially guano - the droppings of an offshore bird that were
collected and distributed throughout the empire.

    Their crops included corn, beans, potatoes, squashes, peppers, tobacco,
tomatoes, cotton, tropical fruits, cacao (cocoa), peanuts, quinoa and oca. Quinoa is a
plant with many tiny seeds that the Incas boiled, or ground into a meal. The
underground tubers of the oca were cooked until they made a thick porridge. The
Incas were the first to grow potatoes, which they developed from bitter nut sized
tubers.

    At high regions, where the Incas could do very little farming, potatoes were very
important. They were preserved by being allowed to freeze and thaw. Then, the Incas
would trample them to force out the water. After drying the sun, this food was called
chuño (choo-nyoo).

    At the start of the planting season there was a festival and everyone came to
work the soil. Even the Inca ruler arrived with a golden spade and began the ceremony
by turning over the first piece of earth. Nobles and other officials also worked for a
short while, but they soon stopped, leaving the peasants to carry on.

    The ground was broken with a long-handled wooden spade called a taclla. The
men formed lines and dug, working backward. The women followed on their knees,
breaking each cloud of dirt into loose soil. Next the men made holes in the ground with
a planting stick. Again the women followed, dropping grains of corn into holes.
According to custom, the women did the sowing because it was believed that the
seeds would not come up otherwise.

    After the planting, the rainy season was anxiously awaited. If there was no rain,
the people dressed in mourning and walked, weeping, through the villages.
Sometimes they tied up a black llama or dog until it died from hunger or thirst. The
people hoped the animal’s cries would soften the hearts of the gods so they would
send rain for the crops.  Except for the last part about the starving of the dog, the
same sorts of techniques of farming are still being used today, only with machine
doing the work instead of man.

    Ater five centuries of use, the Inca roads are still as solid as the day they were
built. The narrow roads were sometimes carved straight out of huge bulders. At the
beginning at each street they used to keep gaurds there to keep enemys away. Their
roads were very strong and helpful.

    The Incas built many different kinds of buildings. For instance when you think
of pyrimids you usally think of Eygpt, but the Incas built pyramids also. The Sun
temple was a pyramid with stone steps all the way to the top. However most Inca
buildings were not pyramids. Houses were one story and if you were richer than
others, you might have a two story house. A peasant wasn't that lucky though, they
would have a one room hut made out of straw with a thatched roof.For a Spaniard their
houses were so close together that a row of them would look like a single wall.

    The Incas had a very interesting way they built things. They would build a
zigzagging wall around the town so if an enemy was attaking the enemy would once
have their back to the Inca on the top of the wall . They would also build buildings and
homes with rock chiseled right out of huge boulders, cut so perfectly to fit together you
could not fit the smallest knife in between them. Because of the way they built things,
Inca buildings are some of the strongest ever built and are still standing today. They
got the rocks by chiseling out rocks out of huge boulders and dragging them with
ropes over to where they were building. If the rock was big enough they would just
build around the huge boulder, but the boulder would have to be very large if they did
that.

    A fortress such as Sacsahuaman, near Cuzco, that was 1500 ft. long and built
of three different sections, would take over 80 years to build, even though the lower
stones were over 25ft high and weighed over 75 tons.
 The Incas didn't use many tools to build. All stones were cut out of huge
boulders with a chisel and hammer. It took the longest time just to get the smallest
stone. Even though they didn't have many choices I think it is interesting that they
used a chisel instead of anything else.

    The Inca people had an unique way of growing their food. They built something
called a terrace. A terrace looks like giant steps filled with dirt. They grew different
crops on different "steps". The Incas built steps next to the terraces so they could
reach the crops.

    The Incas built suspension bridges over gorges and canyons.The bridges were
made out of vines and willow branches braided into ropes and wood slat floors. The
bridges were not very wide. They were about 2ft wide, but they were very long. The
Incas built granite steps to get from place to place. In some areas  there are
thousands of steps that climb the mountain sides. They got the idea for terraces from
the stairs. The Incas would build stairs because they were located in the mountains,
so they needed a way to get to their town.

    Machu Picchu is an old Inca ruin located in the Andes mountains in Peru. A
man named Hirahm Bingahm discovered Machu Picchu when an old man offered to
show Bingam Machu Picchu witch meant "old peek".

    The Inca ruins are a very beautiful sight. Almost everything is still standing
today. Terrace fields, some up to 50 "steps" still stand on the mountainsides. Most of
the remains are located in the Central Highlands of the Andes Mountains. In some
places you can see huge boulders flattened off from the Incas chiseling off rocks.

    The Inca building tecquniques are very obviously very influcencive into the
ways of today. Although the materials have changed drasticly the way things are
assembled remains much the same.
Inca Law

    Once again, only members of the royal family could be called "Incas' in the
days of the empire. Very little is known about punishment. Justice and punishments
were carried out because of unusual tradition, such as theft and betrayal.

    Theft was seen as a serious crime because to steal from another was
considered to be one of the most hurtfull crimes possible. Inca was seen as
something very bad to be looked down upon. Thieves were beaten with stones. If the
thief (or thieves) were found guilty a second time, they would be beaten to death.

    Under the Inca law the two greatest crimes were disobedient to the ruling Inca
and treason and both were punishable by death. Treason means to turn you back on
or betray your country. After the death of the thief, nearly everything that the thief had
was taken by the state.In a rare case only a few personal items were taken. Stealing
was a crime against the government because It was seen as stealing from the entire
Empire. Laziness was also considered a form of stealing because it robbed the Inca of
the work due to him.

    The state religion centered on the worship of the Sun. The Inca emperors were
believed descended from the Sun god and were worshiped as divine beings. Gold, the
symbol of the Sun god, was extensively mined for use by the rulers and members of
the elite, not as a means of exchange but principally for decorative and ritual
purposes. Religion permeated the entire political structure. From the Temple of the
Sun in the center of Cuzco imaginary lines ran to shrines in and around the city that
were identified with different social groups. Religious practices included the
consultation of oracles, the offering of sacrifices, religious trances, and public
confessions. An annual cycle of religious festivals was regulated by the extremely
accurate Inca calendar, as was the agricultural year. In this and other respects, Inca
culture strongly resembled certain cultures of Mesoamerica, such as the Aztecs and
the Maya.

    The Incas of the coast region called their deceased bodies mummies. Some of
the bodies were found in vaults which were covered with sticks and bushes. The
bodies were placed in a sitting position, knees drawn up and the head resting upon
them. The women are found with their work baskets. In some places a fake head was
attached to the mummy body; its significance is unknown.

    The Incas had many versions of their creation. The stories varied depending on
what province it was told in. Nearly all of the accounts of creation are similar in two
ways; they tell of a great flood and they mention the involvement of Viracocha.  was
the supreme lord and creator of the Incas.
Here are a few of the Inca creation stories:

    A farmer noticed that his llamas looked sad. When the man asked a llama what
was the matter, the llama told him that he overheard the stars talking about a great
flood that was coming that would destroy the earth. Upon hearing this the man
gathered up his six children and all the food and livestock that they could take with
them and took them to the top of a big hill called Ancasmarca. When the flood waters
started rising, Viracocha made the hill rise as well so the farmer and his children were
safe. After the flood, the hill was lowered to its original spot. The children and the
farmer were saved and the children lived on and repopulated the province.

    Two brothers survived the flood by taking refuge in a cave. After the flood
waters subsided, the brothers built themselves a shelter and lived off of what they
could gather from the countryside. When they ran out of food, they went into the
countryside to find more, when they returned to their hut, they found it was already full
of enough food to sustain them. Every time they would run out of food and look for
more, there would be provisions awaiting them when they returned. One day, they
decided to stay hidden in the house so they could find out where this food was coming
from. Before too long, two guacamayas (birds like parrots) flew in to the hut. These
birds then took the form of two beautiful princesses and began setting out food for the
brothers. The two men came out of hiding and restrained the girls. The girls were
frightened and tried to get away, but the boys were able to calm them and persuaded
them to stay. When the brothers asked these ladies where they were from, they
replied that they were sent by Viracocha to take care of these brothers. Soon the
brothers married these ladies, and their children would populate the land.

    One more account tells of the ancestors of the Incas coming out of a cave,
called Pacaritampu, after the flood and populating the earth. There is confusion as to
whether the Incas were first created inside of Pacaritampu by Viracocha, or if this is
just the place they took refuge from the flood in. Anyway, all the people of the earth,
then, were descendants of the Incas. This belief is part of the reason that the Incas
were able to build such a vast and powerful empire.

    Each star in the sky was thought to be a deity that looked over every animal on
earth. There was a specified star in the sky for every species of animal in the
world. Urcuchillay took care of the livestock. The star called Chuquichinchay looked after tigers, lions, and bears. Herders made sacrifices to this star and requested that these animals do not harm them. Another star called Machacuay, was the star of the snakes, because it looked
like a snake when lightning flashed. Incas kept snakes for weapons, and made
idols to resemble snakes. They worshiped Machacuay, like Chuquichinchay,
so that snakes and serpents would not harm them. One of the other main stars was Ancochinchay. This star looked after the welfare of the other animals.

Inca game http://arts.falmouth.ac.uk/broadcasting/gun/inca/starthere.html